Research

In multilingual countries, debates about language policy in education persist. Many adopt a transitional bilingual approach in which children are taught to read in their first language (L1) as a subject before instruction shifts to an official language (L2) like English. This model rests on the premise that L1 mastery aids L2 learning. Yet most supporting evidence is correlational. We use an instrumental variable design to examine the causal effects of children’s L1 reading proficiency on L2 reading development with data from 4,352 children aged 5–13 in Ghana. Results show that L1 reading proficiency positively impacts basic L2 skills like letter-sound recognition, but the effect diminishes for decoding pseudo-words and becomes nonsignificant for reading fluency, suggesting inconsistent cross-language transfer.

This mixed-methods study aimed to understand the role of principal leadership in implementing a primary reading intervention in Ghana, a subject under-studied despite the country’s policy focus and global evidence of leadership’s positive impact on school outcomes. We investigated how principals approach leading the intervention, what effects their leadership behaviors have on student reading, and why these effects occur. Quantitative data included teacher-rated principal implementation leadership surveys and student reading assessments collected from 393 teachers and 3,521 students from 198 randomly sampled primary schools nationwide. Qualitative interviews were conducted with three principals and five teachers from a subset of three schools. We found that while most principals struggle with implementation leadership, those who excel in these roles are associated with significantly higher student reading performance with effect sizes between 0.26 and 0.43 standard deviations. Interviews revealed that outstanding leaders proactively adapt to new practices and hold teachers accountable with firmness and empathy, even when facing resistance. These findings highlight the need for robust leadership development to maximize the efficacy of school interventions in contexts like Ghana’s.

Understanding children’s motivations to read and preferred materials is key to fostering reading skills and promoting a national reading culture. This study, conducted a decade after the launch of the Soma Rwanda (Rwanda Read) national reading initiative, explores children’s access to books at home, their reading preferences, and the motivations driving their reading engagement. Data include focus groups with 50 students (grades 1–6) and 49 parents from seven primary schools in urban, semi-urban, and rural communities. The analysis prioritizes children’s perspectives, with parent data providing context on home environments where children’s reading experiences unfold. Findings reveal that despite limited home libraries beyond textbooks, children develop and maintain diverse reading interests, from science to biographies to fiction. Their motivations extend beyond academics to include career exploration, cultural identity, and emotional comfort. Initiatives like Soma Rwanda may have helped foster reading interests and resilience among Rwanda’s young readers, while high costs, poor-quality materials, and limited library availability pose persistent access barriers. The findings suggest that more targeted interventions are necessary to improve access to diverse, child-preferred books. 

Socially and emotionally competent children thrive in school and life. Crucial to this success is integrating social and emotional learning (SEL) across their developmental ecology, from homes, schools, and communities to society. This case study draws on interviews with 21 parents, 42 teachers, and 12 professionals from diverse educational institutions in Malawi. It illuminates coordination strategies and enabling factors for system-wide support for SEL in and around Malawi’s schools. Teachers deliver a compulsory SEL-infused curriculum, sometimes co-instructed with parents, and emphasize daily discipline and behavior modeling. Governmental and non-governmental organizations collaborate with grassroots initiatives, such as Mothers’ Groups, to provide technical support, teacher training, financial aid, and community-wide discussions to acquaint parents with SEL. These efforts align through multiparty dialogues, aimed at bridging home-school disparities. The findings offer insights for establishing a coherent, system-wide support structure for SEL in Malawi and potentially other countries.

Existing literacy studies in low-income countries heavily emphasize school factors. This article shifts focus, examining how home-based reading resources and interactions predict children’s reading via a non-experimental study. Data involve 2,886 children aged 5-13 in Ghana, selected through a two-stage random sampling. Regression analyses show that siblings and parents reading to the child, reading in front of the child, and assisting with studying positively predict children’s acquisition of varying reading skills, measured by the Early Grade Reading Assessment. The availability of home reading resources similarly predicts these outcomes. The results advocate for more literacy investments in homes, extending beyond schools.

Social and emotional learning (SEL) enhances children’s academic and life achievements when implemented well. While previous studies explored factors influencing teachers’ implementation of SEL, limited attention has been given to the role of their social and emotional competence. To address this gap, this study analyzed surveys from 434 primary school teachers in Malawi using hierarchical linear modeling. The findings reveal a positive relationship between teachers’ social and emotional competence, specifically in emotion regulation and relationship management, and their integration of SEL in daily classroom instruction. Notably, teachers serve as behavioral role models through socialization, communication, and emotional conduct. Strengthening teachers’ social and emotional competence, in conjunction with SEL pedagogy training, could help foster SEL-rich school environments for learners in Malawi and similar contexts.

This article explores how teachers adapt to challenges when integrating social and emotional learning (SEL) into classroom instruction in African contexts via a study in Malawi involving 42 teachers. Malawian teachers employ several discrete methods for SEL instruction, including teaching SEL vocabulary, making SEL-guided classroom rules, providing SEL behavior coaching, and using poetry and personalized greetings to foster positive self-concept and relationships. Various factors influence the use of these methods, including teachers’ beliefs about their roles and responsibilities, cultural norms, learner needs, assessment, and classroom constraints. Findings demonstrate that adaptive pedagogy enables teachers to stay committed to SEL despite challenges.

Parental involvement is increasingly becoming an integral part of children’s education globally. This article presents parents’ beliefs and strategies to contextualize relevant discourse in social and emotional learning (SEL) in Malawi. I interviewed 21 parents of primary school-aged children discussing (a) issues affecting children socially and emotionally, (b) parents’ role in supporting SEL, and (c) strategies used in the process. This revealed various parental knowledge and strategies of SEL in the homes as well as socio-cultural networks and resources in the communities that complemented within-family SEL. Policy implications for the creation of system-wide SEL beyond school settings are discussed. 

Nigeria is home to more out-of-school (OOS) children than any other country on Earth. More than 10.2 million children match that description throughout Nigeria, a conflict-affected country that grapples with long-standing challenges of entrenched poverty and weak governance. We used a randomized control trial (RCT) with 1,723 out of school children, ages 9–14 (850 treatment and 873 control), to determine the impact of an accelerated learning program (ALP) on the literacy, numeracy and social-emotional learning (SEL) outcomes of OOS children in Northeast Nigeria and gathered qualitative and costing data to determine stakeholder’s experiences with the program and the cost of implementation. Results show that at an average cost of £66 (2018 GBP) per child for 7months of service, the program had positive, small to medium, and statistically significant effects on children’s literacy and numeracy skills, but no effects on SEL outcomes. We include subgroup analysis to identify baseline equity gaps and the differential impact of the intervention by gender, displacement status and mother tongue language. We discuss limitations and policy and practices implications of these findings.

Contextualizing the role of teachers in social-emotional learning (SEL) in Malawi, we examine how teachers’ comfort with, commitment to, and perceived school culture toward SEL relate to their actual teaching of it. Using surveys from 432 primary school teachers (20-60 years old), we found teacher comfort and supportive school culture were positively related to integration of SEL into classroom instruction, while commitment had no statistically significant relationship with implementation. We explore plausible explanations for these findings by interviewing 42 teachers. Together, our findings highlight the importance of teacher support systems and cultural compatibility of the curriculum for successful SEL implementation.

This study profiled how teachers organise the literacy environment in 21 early primary classrooms (grades 1 to 3) in rural Mozambique. We focused on two dimensions of classroom literacy environments—physical environments (e.g. access to literacy resources, visibility of print materials, presence of writing space and tools) and instructional environments (e.g. lesson structure, teaching methods and techniques, instructional support)—and their interactions in the daily work of teachers in classroom settings by using classroom observation, teacher interview, and teacher/school document data. Our findings reveal strengths (e.g., teacher efforts in developing print materials) and weaknesses (e.g., restricting students’ independent use of teacher-produced print materials) in teachers’ organisation of literacy environments in their classrooms. More importantly, our findings demonstrate synergistic relationships between the two domains of classroom literacy environments. We discuss the policy and research implications of these findings.

Improving literacy outcomes in sub-Saharan Africa is a central focus of national governments, donors and non-governmental organisations alike, as evidenced by the inclusion of literacy as a target in the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goal 4. Though significant international development funding has been devoted to teacher training in the region, little evidence is available on how teachers improve their literacy instruction in practice. This study profiles how 20 teachers in eight schools in rural Mozambique translated training in literacy instruction into classroom instruction. We used three domains of teacher knowledge—content knowledge, pedagogical knowledge, and pedagogical content knowledge—to analyse interview and observation data. While some aspects of training translated into classroom practices, including explicit literacy instruction and use of visual aids, teachers rarely used activities for oral language development or reading comprehension, which are critical to producing skilled readers. We discuss the research and policy implications of these findings.

Social and emotional learning (SEL) positively impacts children’s school achievement and adult productivity. Successful implementation of SEL relies on teachers’ pedagogical beliefs and practices. We examined whether the Teachers’ SEL Belief Scale, designed in the United States, is adoptable in low-income countries such as Malawi in response to growing interest in teacher practices in SEL and a lack of research instruments in these contexts. The data used in this study were from 432 teachers working in 34 randomly selected primary schools in Zomba, a rural district in Malawi. We used multiple-group confirmatory factor analysis to investigate the factor structure and invariance of the adapted scale across teachers with different characteristics, such as gender and training experience in SEL. When invariant, we compared group mean differences by gender and training experience. The Teachers’ SEL Belief Scale measured a similar construct of pedagogical perceptions of SEL among the sampled teachers and functioned equivalently across gender and training groups. Female teachers reported lower perceived institutional support for SEL instruction compared to male teachers. Untrained teachers reported lower pedagogical comfort and perceived support for SEL compared to trained teachers. The findings validate the adaptability of the Teachers’ SEL Belief Scale in low-income contexts such as Malawi. We found no evidence of systematic bias relative to group membership. Lower pedagogical comfort and institutional support among female and untrained teachers indicate areas for policy intervention to improve teacher performance in SEL in Malawi.

Building on the Education for All movement, the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development re-emphasises quality education as a discrete goal. Contextualising this goal in Zambia, this study examines how educational stakeholders at local, national, and global levels conceptualise education quality. Triangulating teacher survey and interview data with policy documents from the government of Zambia and UNESCO, we found both convergence and divergence in how each level defines education quality. Convergence appeared in the strong influence of the economic tradition in education and in views of schools as drivers of resilient individuals and communities. Divergence emerged in the different meanings attached to similar concepts and in the varying influence of humanistic and organisational management traditions across levels. We discuss the implications for strengthening collective efforts among key partners to advance quality education in Zambia.

Textbooks are a critical component of quality education in developing countries. This article examines textbook availability and teachers’ coping strategies in response to limited access in Zambia. Guided by change theory, the study finds that teachers’ educational beliefs, instructional approaches, and use of alternative materials jointly shape how they manage shortages. Teachers need more textbooks, yet provision is unlikely to improve in the near term. We therefore argue for integrating effective teacher-developed adaptations into teacher training programs to strengthen outcomes in the short term.

It has been argued that government authorities have led the provision and organisation of in-service education and training (INSET) for teachers in Korea. However, laws and dedicated government institutes for INSET were not established until the early 1970s, when the system began to take its current form. This study examines the historical development of INSET in Korea before the emergence of the modern system, with particular attention to the major actors and their roles. The findings show that a wide range of private organisations provided INSET, including research institutes, voluntary groups, universities, and overseas educational commissions. These actors diversified training content and filled gaps where government reach remained limited. 

Strengthening everyday classroom instruction is central to achieving global literacy goals in low- and middle-income countries, yet teacher professional development systems remain constrained by limited access, weak engagement, and limited follow-through. This chapter examines how EdTech functions as a system-level response to these constraints. Drawing on a rapid evidence review of 97 full-text studies identified from 3,385 records across six databases, the analysis synthesizes experimental, quasi-experimental, and descriptive evidence. Across delivery models and study designs, EdTech contributes most when it restructures professional learning into sustained, practice-embedded instructional support rather than digitized content delivery. Implications for research and policy are discussed.

This chapter reviews the role of quantitative methods in comparative and international education (CIE), tracing their historical foundations and examining contemporary research designs, data sources, analytical approaches, and validity considerations. It outlines experimental, quasi-experimental, and non-experimental designs and clarifies how each supports descriptive, correlational, predictive, and causal inference in education research. The chapter then surveys common quantitative data sources in CIE, including international large-scale assessments, administrative systems, and project-based studies, highlighting both their analytical potential and limitations. Core descriptive and inferential statistical techniques are introduced, alongside discussion of emerging transparency practices. The chapter concludes by emphasizing the centrality of research design to internal and external validity and illustrating how quantitative methods can be applied to study teaching quality across contexts. Together, the chapter provides a practical methodological foundation for researchers seeking to generate rigorous, policy-relevant evidence in global education.

Literacy development in schools can be supported or discouraged by varying factors in the learning environments created by teachers. This study explores teachers’ behavior around the organization of classroom literacy environments in Zambia and Mozambique. Prior research explores the instructional methods used by teachers, but limited research addresses their organization of literacy environments. The following multi-case study draws face-to-face interview data from 16 grade 2-7 primary school teachers in Zambia, and 21 grades 1-5 primary school teachers in Mozambique. The data were analyzed thematically and compared across countries. Findings highlight a need for more funding around the basic provision of classroom literacy material to combat shortages, as is typical of low- and middle-income country contexts. The data also revealed potential in the development and use of locally sourced classroom literacy materials, both by the teachers and by school leadership or other stakeholders. Implications for practice and policy include the further dissemination of, and training in the design and development of locally sourced materials for the various regions, and the use of classroom literacy materials in more active learning activities to improve learning outcomes.

This chapter synthesizes research on literacy environments in formal K–12 schooling and adult and nonformal education (ANFE) to explain how broader social contexts shape the acquisition, use, and retention of literacy and numeracy skills. It conceptualizes literacy environments across home, classroom, and social domains and reviews the rapid growth of empirical studies in each area. In K–12 settings, evidence emphasizes the integrated roles of home practices, classroom interactions, and access to print and digital resources in supporting children’s literacy development. In ANFE contexts, research centers on the social and economic uses of literacy, highlighting how opportunities for applying skills in livelihoods, civic participation, and community enterprises drive motivation and sustained learning. The chapter argues that effective literacy development depends not only on instructional quality but on the surrounding demand and resource structures that enable skills to be practiced and valued, with persistent inequities shaping outcomes across contexts.

Pedagogy in Process: The Letters to Guinea-Bissau documents Paulo Freire’s direct engagement with post-independence education reform in Guinea-Bissau through a series of reflective letters to local educators and leaders. Rather than presenting abstract theory, Freire shows pedagogy in action as he grapples with literacy, decolonization, political struggle, and the tensions between revolutionary ideals and everyday schooling realities. The book reveals how critical pedagogy must adapt to context, power relations, and material constraints while remaining anchored in dialogue, collective agency, and social transformation.

The Trouble with Ed Schools offers a sharp institutional critique of schools of education and their chronic struggle to balance academic scholarship, professional training, and public service. Labaree argues that ed schools sit between universities and K–12 systems without fully satisfying either, which weakens their research credibility while limiting their practical impact on teaching quality. Through historical analysis and case examples, the book shows how competing missions, low status within universities, and misaligned incentives have shaped teacher education in ways that resist reform.